What must be specified to achieve a valid spectroscopic measurement?
Several factors are described that must be considered when choosing an instrument for spectroscopy: which wavelength range and resolution are appropriate to the type of sample to be measured, how much light is available, how to separate the light, which type of detector to use, etc.

Auteur: Alexander Scheeline. Verlag: Hamamatsu K.K., Japan

URL: https://hub.hamamatsu.com/us/en/technical-notes/spectrometers/achieve-a-valid-spectroscopic-measurement0.html

Dernier accès: 27.02.2025

Pyroelectric Detector Basics
InfraTec pyroelectric detector basics and applications library.

Auteur: InfraTec GmbH, Dresden

URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20170517064726/http://www.infratec-infrared.com/fileadmin/media/Sensorik/pdf/Appl_Notes/Application_Detector_Basics.pdf

Dernier accès: 07.01.2026

Tunable infrared detector with integrated micromachined Fabry-Perot filter
Design, fabrication and test results of a tunable pyroelectric detector, 2007.

Auteurs: Norbert Neumann, Martin Ebermann, Karla Hiller, Steffen Kurth

URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20140902212038/http://www.infratec.de/fileadmin/media/Sensorik/pdf/Appl_Notes/Tunable_Detector.pdf

Dernier accès: 07.01.2026

Pyroelectric Infrared Detectors
Full electronic analysis of pyroelectric detectors.

Auteur: DIAS Infrared GmbH, Dresden, Germany

URL: https://www.dias-infrared.de/pdf/basics_eng.pdf

Dernier accès: 07.01.2026

Comparison of Pyroelectric and Thermopile Detectors
The main principles and the basic design of both the pyroelectric detector and the thermopile are discussed and compared.
AMA Conferences 2013 - SENSOR 2013, OPTO 2013, IRS² 2013

Auteurs: Norbert Neumann, Victor Banta

URL: https://www.ama-science.org/proceedings/download/

Dernier accès: 07.01.2026

Silicon Photodiodes Physics and Technology.
Various parameters used to characterize photodiodes will be introduced. The differences between photoconductive and photovoltaic modes of operation, and their relative merits and limitations will be pointed out to enable users of silicon photodiodes to make an intelligent choice.

UDT Sensors, Inc. App Note no. 2, April 1982

URL: https://wp.optics.arizona.edu/jpalmer/wp-content/uploads/sites/65/2018/11/UDTapp_notes_02.pdf

Dernier accès: 23.08.2025

Photomultiplier Tubes. Basics and Applications.
Fundamentals of radiation measurements with photomultiplier tubes; electronic circuits; single photon measurement; microchannel plates; applications.

Auteur: Toshikazu Hakamata and Editorial Committee, Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Japan. Edition 3a, 2007, 323 pp.

URL: https://www.hamamatsu.com/content/dam/hamamatsu-photonics/sites/documents/99_SALES_LIBRARY/etd/PMT_handbook_v4E.pdf

Dernier accès: 23.08.2025

Photomultiplier Handbook (PMT-62).
Design, characteristics and applications of photomultiplier tubes; photometric and radiometric principles.

Auteur: R W. Engstrom, RCA Electro-Optics and Devices, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA, 1980; Burle Industries, Pennsylvania, USA, 1986. 179 pp.

URL: http://psec.uchicago.edu/links/Photomultiplier_Handbook.pdf

Dernier accès: 23.08.2025

Guide to detector selection.
Choosing a detector requires evaluating many operating parameters and desired outcomes. This introduction provides a series of guideposts that will help lead the way to the right one.

Auteur: Earl Hergert. Publisher: Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Japan, 2016.

URL: https://hub.hamamatsu.com/us/en/technical-notes/detector-selection/guide-to-detector-selection.html

Dernier accès: 23.08.2025

The WITS$ guide to selecting a photodetector.
The process of selecting an appropriate photodetector among a photomultiplier tube (PMT), photodiode (PD), avalanche photodiode (APD), and silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) may seem taxing and confusing. This article provides qualitative and quantitative guidance to the selection process based on the WITS$ approach: Wavelength, Intensity, Time characteristics, Spatial characteristics, and cost ($).

Auteurs: Earl Hergert & Slawomir Piatek. Publisher: Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Japan, 2016.

URL: https://hub.hamamatsu.com/us/en/technical-notes/detector-selection/the-wits-guide-to-selecting-a-photodetector.html

Dernier accès: 23.08.2025

What is an SiPM and how does it work?
This technical note provides descriptions on various aspects of silicon photomultipliers, including how they work, their basic structure, and characteristics such as photon detection efficiency, gain, breakdown voltage, and optical crosstalk.

Autor: Slawomir Piatek. Verlag: Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Japan, 2016.

URL: https://hub.hamamatsu.com/us/en/technical-notes/mppc-sipms/what-is-an-SiPM-and-how-does-it-work.html

Dernier accès: 23.08.2025

A technical guide to silicon photomultipliers (MPPC) - Overview.
This extensive guide to MPPCs describes the device's operating principle, its performance parameters, and how to measure various characteristics such as gain, breakdown voltage, photon detection efficiency, and linearity.

Auteurs: Ardavan Ghassemi, Kota Kobayashi & Kenichi Sato. Publisher: Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Japan, 2018.

URL: https://hub.hamamatsu.com/us/en/technical-notes/mppc-sipms/a-technical-guide-to-silicon-photomutlipliers-MPPC-overview.html

Dernier accès: 23.08.2025

Données

Sun Fact Sheet
Comparaison Soleil/Terre (y compris la pression des gaz dans l'atmosphère solaire)

Responsable: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, USA

URL: https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html

Dernier accès : 22.04.2025

Spectra of Gas Discharges
Colour spectra of elements undergoing electrical discharge excitation

Responsable : École des Mines d’Albi-Carmaux, 81013 Albi, France.
Auteur: Amaury de Guilhem de Lataillade

URL: https://perso.imt-mines-albi.fr/~latailla/java/spectre/

Dernier accès : 05.07.2024

Ground Levels and Ionization Energies for the Neutral Atoms
Physical Reference Data

Responsable : National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD 20899, U.S.A.
Auteurs: Martin W C, A Musgrove, S Kotochigova, J E Sansonetti

URL: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/IonEnergy/ionEnergy.html

Dernier accès : 05.07.2024

Landsat USGS Homepage
Information on the Landsat programme and data sets

Responsable: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

URL: https://www.usgs.gov/core-science-systems/nli/landsat

Dernier accès : 05.07.2024

CEOS Cal/Val Portals
Information for calibration and validation of earth observation data

Responsable : Committee on Earth Observation (CEOS)

URL: http://calvalportal.ceos.org/

Dernier accès : 05.07.2024